Mr. Yamane plans each mathematics unit beginning with a set of outcomes specifying what he wants the students to achieve, based largely on the Common Core State Standards for his grade. He then plans the lessons that will help the students achieve those outcomes and the assessments he will use to determine whether they have, in fact, achieved them. The planning process Mr. Yamane is using is

a. formative assessment.
b. dynamic assessment.
c. curriculum-based measurement.
d. backward design.